Advances in synthesis of high-performance thermoelectric materials

Thermoelectric materials directly convert heat into electricity, providing a sustainable solution for power generation, cooling, and enhancing energy efficiency while addressing environmental challenges. The performance and scalability of these materials are critically influenced by their synthesis methods. This review comprehensively examines thermoelectric synthesis techniques based on material form: bulk, powder/particles, and thin films. It commences with bulk material synthesis methods, such as melting, high-pressure synthesis, and solid-state reactions. It subsequently explores powder and particle synthesis, emphasizing solution-based processes, ball milling, and exfoliation, along with sintering techniques, such as hot pressing, hot extrusion, and spark plasma sintering, which consolidate powders into bulk forms. Finally, thin-film synthesis is investigated, with a focus on electrochemical deposition, vapor-phase deposition, and atomic layer deposition methods. Each method is analyzed in terms of its principles, advantages, limitations, and practical applications. This review concludes with a forward-looking perspective on the future development of thermoelectric synthesis methods, aiming to guide the selection of optimal techniques and advance thermoelectric material properties.