Analyses of queen Hetepheres' bracelets from her celebrated tomb in Giza reveals new information on silver, metallurgy and trade in Old Kingdom Egypt, c. 2600 BC

Egypt has no domestic silver ore sources and silver is rarely found in the Egyptian archaeological record until the Middle Bronze Age. Bracelets found in the tomb of queen Hetepheres I, mother of pyramid builder king Khufu (date of reign c. 2589–2566 BC), form the largest and most famous collection of silver artefacts from early Egypt, but they have not been analysed for decades. We analysed samples from the collection in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston using bulk XRF, micro-XRF, SEM-EDS, X-ray diffractometry and MC-ICP-MS to obtain elemental and mineralogical compositions and lead isotope ratios, to understand the nature and metallurgical treatment of the metal and identify the possible ore source. We found that the pieces consist of silver with trace copper, gold, lead and other elements. The minerals are silver, silver chloride and a possible trace of copper chloride. Surprisingly, the lead isotope ratios are consistent with ores from the Cyclades (Aegean islands, Greece), and to a lesser extent from Lavrion (Attica, Greece), and not partitioned from gold or electrum as previously surmised. Sources in Anatolia (Western Asia) can be excluded with a high degree of confidence. Imaging of a cross-section of a bracelet fragment reveals that the metal was repeatedly annealed and cold-hammered during creation of the artefacts. The results provide new information about silver ore sources, commodity exchange networks and metallurgy in Egypt during the Early Bronze Age.