Forming the herd: a re-examination of Predynastic bovine figurines from settlement contexts

Since the early 20th century, bovine figurines have been excavated from Upper Egyptian Predynastic settlements and cemeteries dating between Naqada IA–IIC/D (ca. 3800–3325 BCE). Though still rare finds for this period, they are currently the most commonly identified zoomorphic figurine subject, far outnumbering other wild and domestic animals. As a result of their greater quantity, bovine figurines have been the subject of numerous iconographic and contextual studies which have proposed that these objects were produced for religious rituals, ex-votos, and proxies of the real animal. Using bovine figurines from three settlements with similar features and archaeological contexts, namely el-Mahâsna, Zawaydah, and Armant, this paper provides another interpretation which places the evidence within an economic context, where the figurine acts as a record of the negotiations and exchanges of cattle. The analysis draws upon the visual and material attributes of the figurines within their broader archaeological context to compare with a hypothesis that was proposed by Wengrow (1998). The multifaceted value of cattle as producers of primary and secondary products, and indexes of wealth made them a significant animal to own; thus, individuals may have documented the negotiation for live cattle and carcasses using bovine figurines.