Response of salt marsh and mangrove wetlands to changes in atmospheric CO₂, climate, and sea level

Coastal salt marsh and mangrove ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to changes in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and associated climate and climateinduced changes. We provide a review of the literature detailing theoretical predictions and observed responses of coastal wetlands to a range of climate change stressors, including CO₂, temperature, rainfall, and sea-level rise. This review incorporates a discussion of key processes controlling responses in different settings and thresholds of resilience derived from experimental and observational studies. We speci fi cally consider the potential and observed effects on salt marsh and mangrove vegetation of changes in (1) elevated [CO₂ ] on physiology, growth, and distribution; (2) temperature on distribution and diversity; (3) rainfall and salinity regimes on growth and competitive interactions; and (4) sea level on geomorphological, hydrological, and biological processes.